tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-53997284364350657922024-02-22T05:10:00.695-08:00Clinical NeuroanatomyA blog on clinical neuroanatomyUnknownnoreply@blogger.comBlogger13125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5399728436435065792.post-85500467727239010562015-11-14T01:53:00.000-08:002015-11-14T01:53:10.353-08:00Disruption of posteromedial large-scale neural communication predicts recovery from coma<div class="subsection" id="sec-1" style="background-color: white; border: 0px; clear: both; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 11.2667px; margin: 0px; outline-style: none; padding: 0px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<div id="p-464" style="border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1.5; margin-bottom: 15px; margin-top: 15px; outline-style: none; padding: 0px; text-align: inherit; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-weight: 700; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; outline-style: none; padding: 0px; text-align: inherit; vertical-align: baseline;">Objective:</span> We hypothesize that the major consciousness deficit observed in coma is due to the breakdown of long-range neuronal communication supported by precuneus and posterior cingulate cortex (PCC), and that prognosis depends on a specific connectivity pattern in these networks.</div>
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<div class="subsection" id="sec-2" style="background-color: white; border: 0px; clear: both; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 11.2667px; margin: 0px; outline-style: none; padding: 0px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<div id="p-465" style="border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1.5; margin-bottom: 15px; margin-top: 15px; outline-style: none; padding: 0px; text-align: inherit; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-weight: 700; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; outline-style: none; padding: 0px; text-align: inherit; vertical-align: baseline;">Methods:</span> We compared 27 prospectively recruited comatose patients who had severe brain injury (Glasgow Coma Scale score <8; 14 traumatic and 13 anoxic cases) with 14 age-matched healthy participants. Standardized clinical assessment and fMRI were performed on average 4 ± 2 days after withdrawal of sedation. Analysis of resting-state fMRI connectivity involved a hypothesis-driven, region of interest–based strategy. We assessed patient outcome after 3 months using the Coma Recovery Scale–Revised (CRS-R).</div>
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<div class="subsection" id="sec-3" style="background-color: white; border: 0px; clear: both; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 11.2667px; margin: 0px; outline-style: none; padding: 0px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<div id="p-466" style="border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1.5; margin-bottom: 15px; margin-top: 15px; outline-style: none; padding: 0px; text-align: inherit; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-weight: 700; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; outline-style: none; padding: 0px; text-align: inherit; vertical-align: baseline;">Results:</span> Patients who were comatose showed a significant disruption of functional connectivity of brain areas spontaneously synchronized with PCC, globally notwithstanding etiology. The functional connectivity strength between PCC and medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) was significantly different between comatose patients who went on to recover and those who eventually scored an unfavorable outcome 3 months after brain injury (Kruskal-Wallis test, <em style="border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; outline-style: none; padding: 0px; text-align: inherit; vertical-align: baseline;">p</em> < 0.001; linear regression between CRS-R and PCC-mPFC activity coupling at rest, Spearman ρ = 0.93, <em style="border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; outline-style: none; padding: 0px; text-align: inherit; vertical-align: baseline;">p</em> < 0.003).</div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEihuGeAQJLl-rNDYZSVK8B6e2JBc-kEdSsfNTzns3TclemedjSCJIo2k5kJY_jXc424t6I3cFrAeqIuqoj56hdL3F6ilqG9WF2xN20QOHS2AWwsrYslh-NVQAxcFRx1PX2YLGup9ZTL6_5K/s1600/Captura+de+pantalla+2015-11-14+a+las+10.50.47.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="640" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEihuGeAQJLl-rNDYZSVK8B6e2JBc-kEdSsfNTzns3TclemedjSCJIo2k5kJY_jXc424t6I3cFrAeqIuqoj56hdL3F6ilqG9WF2xN20QOHS2AWwsrYslh-NVQAxcFRx1PX2YLGup9ZTL6_5K/s640/Captura+de+pantalla+2015-11-14+a+las+10.50.47.png" width="496" /></a></div>
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<div class="subsection" id="sec-4" style="background-color: white; border: 0px; clear: both; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 11.2667px; margin: 0px; outline-style: none; padding: 0px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<div id="p-467" style="border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1.5; margin-bottom: 15px; margin-top: 15px; outline-style: none; padding: 0px; text-align: inherit; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-weight: 700; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; outline-style: none; padding: 0px; text-align: inherit; vertical-align: baseline;">Conclusion:</span> In both etiology groups (traumatic and anoxic), changes in the connectivity of PCC-centered, spontaneously synchronized, large-scale networks account for the loss of external and internal self-centered awareness observed during coma. Sparing of functional connectivity between PCC and mPFC may predict patient outcome, and further studies are needed to substantiate this potential prognosis biomarker.</div>
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<b>Reference:</b><span style="font-weight: inherit;"> <abbr class="slug-jnl-abbrev" style="border: 0px; color: #666666; font-size: 11.7px; font-style: italic; line-height: 10.14px; margin: 0px; outline-style: none; padding: 0px; text-align: left; vertical-align: baseline;" title="Neurology">Neurology</abbr><span class="slug-pub-date" itemprop="datePublished" style="border: 0px; color: #666666; font-size: 11.7px; line-height: 10.14px; margin: 0px; outline-style: none; padding: 0px; text-align: left; vertical-align: baseline;"> </span><span style="color: #666666; font-size: 11.7px; line-height: 10.14px; text-align: left;"></span><span class="slug-elocation" style="border: 0px; color: #666666; font-size: 11.7px; line-height: 10.14px; margin: 0px; outline-style: none; padding: 0px; text-align: left; vertical-align: baseline;">10.1212/WNL.0000000000002196 (<a href="http://www.neurology.org/content/early/2015/11/11/WNL.0000000000002196.full.pdf+html" target="_blank">Full text</a>)</span></span></div>
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Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5399728436435065792.post-10711654475574003372015-11-14T01:49:00.001-08:002015-11-14T02:05:08.168-08:00Thalamic amnesia after infarct: the role of the mammillothalamic tract and mediodorsal nucleus<div class="subsection" id="sec-1" style="background-color: white; border: 0px; clear: both; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 11.2667px; margin: 0px; outline-style: none; padding: 0px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<div id="p-422" style="border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1.5; margin-bottom: 15px; margin-top: 15px; outline-style: none; padding: 0px; text-align: inherit; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-weight: 700; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; outline-style: none; padding: 0px; text-align: inherit; vertical-align: baseline;">Objective:</span> To improve current understanding of the mechanisms behind thalamic amnesia, as it is unclear whether it is directly related to damage to specific nuclei, in particular to the anterior or mediodorsal nuclei, or indirectly related to lesions of the mammillothalamic tract (MTT).</div>
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<div class="subsection" id="sec-2" style="background-color: white; border: 0px; clear: both; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 11.2667px; margin: 0px; outline-style: none; padding: 0px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<div id="p-423" style="border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1.5; margin-bottom: 15px; margin-top: 15px; outline-style: none; padding: 0px; text-align: inherit; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-weight: 700; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; outline-style: none; padding: 0px; text-align: inherit; vertical-align: baseline;">Methods:</span> We recruited 12 patients with a left thalamic infarction and 25 healthy matched controls. All underwent a comprehensive neuropsychological assessment of verbal and visual memory, executive functions, language, and affect, and a high-resolution structural volumetric MRI scan. Thalamic lesions were manually segmented and automatically localized with a computerized thalamic atlas. As well as comparing patients with controls, we divided patients into subgroups with intact or damaged MTT.</div>
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<div class="subsection" id="sec-3" style="background-color: white; border: 0px; clear: both; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 11.2667px; margin: 0px; outline-style: none; padding: 0px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<div id="p-424" style="border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1.5; margin-bottom: 15px; margin-top: 15px; outline-style: none; padding: 0px; text-align: inherit; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-weight: 700; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; outline-style: none; padding: 0px; text-align: inherit; vertical-align: baseline;">Results:</span> Only one patient had a small lesion of the anterior nucleus. Most of the lesions included the mediodorsal (n = 11) and intralaminar nuclei (n = 12). Patients performed worse than controls on the verbal memory tasks, but the 5 patients with intact MTT who showed isolated lesions of the mediodorsal nucleus (MD) only displayed moderate memory impairment. The 7 patients with a damaged MTT performed worse on the verbal memory tasks than those whose MTT was intact.</div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg4-QECjswW7ylh1XYYowXHwrM8j-gNTB3outvL_01Uq5qhM3_07viHMHXRswxXV-Bhx3kIVWxH2WGwAUi8ZTedgsB2Pl5TLb88hh3jttZvTjxSNK1_FUIWByDaRdC0-zcJeItIHIh0ierP/s1600/Captura+de+pantalla+2015-11-14+a+las+10.46.15.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="640" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg4-QECjswW7ylh1XYYowXHwrM8j-gNTB3outvL_01Uq5qhM3_07viHMHXRswxXV-Bhx3kIVWxH2WGwAUi8ZTedgsB2Pl5TLb88hh3jttZvTjxSNK1_FUIWByDaRdC0-zcJeItIHIh0ierP/s640/Captura+de+pantalla+2015-11-14+a+las+10.46.15.png" width="515" /></a></div>
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<div class="subsection" id="sec-4" style="background-color: white; border: 0px; clear: both; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 11.2667px; margin: 0px; outline-style: none; padding: 0px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<div id="p-425" style="border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1.5; margin-bottom: 15px; margin-top: 15px; outline-style: none; padding: 0px; text-align: inherit; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-weight: 700; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; outline-style: none; padding: 0px; text-align: inherit; vertical-align: baseline;">Conclusions:</span> Lesions in the MTT and in the MD result in memory impairment, severely in the case of MTT and to a lesser extent in the case of MD, thus highlighting the roles played by these 2 structures in memory circuits.</div>
<div id="p-425" style="border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-style: inherit; line-height: 1.5; margin-bottom: 15px; margin-top: 15px; outline-style: none; padding: 0px; text-align: inherit; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-style: inherit; line-height: 1.5; text-align: inherit;"><b>Reference:</b></span><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 1.5; text-align: inherit;"> </span><abbr class="slug-jnl-abbrev" style="border-image-outset: initial; border-image-repeat: initial; border-image-slice: initial; border-image-source: initial; border-image-width: initial; border: 0px; color: #666666; font-family: inherit; font-size: 11.7px; font-style: italic; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 10.14px; margin: 0px; outline-style: none; padding: 0px; text-align: left; vertical-align: baseline;" title="Neurology">Neurology</abbr><span class="slug-pub-date" itemprop="datePublished" style="border-image-outset: initial; border-image-repeat: initial; border-image-slice: initial; border-image-source: initial; border-image-width: initial; border: 0px; color: #666666; font-family: inherit; font-size: 11.7px; font-style: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 10.14px; margin: 0px; outline-style: none; padding: 0px; text-align: left; vertical-align: baseline;"> </span><span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="color: #666666; font-family: inherit; font-size: 11.7px; font-style: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 10.14px; text-align: left;"></span></span><span class="slug-elocation" style="border-image-outset: initial; border-image-repeat: initial; border-image-slice: initial; border-image-source: initial; border-image-width: initial; border: 0px; color: #666666; font-family: inherit; font-size: 11.7px; font-style: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: 10.14px; margin: 0px; outline-style: none; padding: 0px; text-align: left; vertical-align: baseline;">10.1212/WNL.0000000000002226 (<a href="http://www.neurology.org/content/early/2015/11/13/WNL.0000000000002226.full.pdf+html" target="_blank">Full text</a>)</span></div>
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Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5399728436435065792.post-65393135853234262632015-02-19T14:20:00.002-08:002015-02-19T14:20:14.293-08:00Brainbow Hippocampus<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
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<br />Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5399728436435065792.post-47158042635317258602015-02-19T14:13:00.002-08:002015-02-19T14:13:25.133-08:00Transparent Brain<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
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<br />Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5399728436435065792.post-5122018912786755922014-11-23T10:02:00.003-08:002014-11-23T10:06:15.347-08:00Diagram of striatal afferent projections from cortex<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3204393/bin/nihms314989f8.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3204393/bin/nihms314989f8.jpg" height="412" width="640" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: x-small;"><span style="background-color: white; line-height: 12.5707216262817px; text-align: left;">Diagram demonstrating the functional organization of A. frontal cortex and B. striatal afferent projections. (A) Schematic illustration of the functional connections linking frontal cortical brain regions. (B) Organization of cortical and subcortical inputs to the striatum. In both (A) and (B), the colors denote functional distinctions. Blue: motor cortex, execution of motor actions; green: premotor cortex, planning of movements; yellow: dorsal and lateral prefrontal cortex, cognitive and executive functions; orange: orbital prefrontal cortex, goal-directed behaviors and motivation; red: medial prefrontal cortex, goal-directed behaviors and emotional processing. (Reproduced with permission from </span><a class=" bibr" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3204393/#R20" id="__tag_238697453" rid="R20" style="background-color: white; color: #642a8f; line-height: 12.5707216262817px; text-align: left;" target="mainwindow">Haber, 2003</a><span style="background-color: white; line-height: 12.5707216262817px; text-align: left;">, </span><a class="fig-table-link fig figpopup" co-legend-rid="lgnd_F3" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3204393/figure/F3/" rid-figpopup="F3" rid-ob="ob-F3" style="background-color: white; clear: both; color: #642a8f; cursor: pointer; display: inline-block !important; line-height: 12.5707216262817px; text-align: left; zoom: 1 !important;" target="figure">fig 3</a></span><span style="background-color: white; line-height: 12.5707216262817px; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: x-small;">.)</span><br /><br /></span></td></tr>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3204393/bin/nihms314989f9.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3204393/bin/nihms314989f9.jpg" height="640" width="443" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: x-small;"><span style="background-color: white; line-height: 12.5707216262817px; text-align: left;">Schematic showing anatomy of the striatum (a). Representative lateral (b) and medial (c) illustrations of cortical areas and their connections to the striatum. The colored segment in the striatum represents the area of the striatum receiving projections from the cortical area of the same color. Abbreviations: AC, anterior cingulate cortex; dlPFC, dorsal lateral prefrontal cortex; FEF, frontal eye field; lOFC, lateral orbitofrontal cortex; MC, motor cortex; PPC, posterior parietal cortex; SMA, supplementary motor area; SSC, somatosensory cortex. Compiled from </span><a class=" bibr" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3204393/#R1" id="__tag_328113387" rid="R1" style="background-color: white; color: #642a8f; line-height: 12.5707216262817px; text-align: left;" target="mainwindow">Alexander et al. (1986)</a><span style="background-color: white; line-height: 12.5707216262817px; text-align: left;">. (Reproduced from </span><a class=" bibr" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3204393/#R50" id="__tag_238697444" rid="R50" style="background-color: white; color: #642a8f; line-height: 12.5707216262817px; text-align: left;" target="mainwindow">Utter and Basso, 2008</a><span style="background-color: white; line-height: 12.5707216262817px; text-align: left;">, </span><a class="fig-table-link fig figpopup" co-legend-rid="lgnd_F2" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3204393/figure/F2/" rid-figpopup="F2" rid-ob="ob-F2" style="background-color: white; clear: both; color: #642a8f; cursor: pointer; display: inline-block !important; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; line-height: 12.5707216262817px; text-align: left; zoom: 1 !important;" target="figure">Fig.2</a><span style="background-color: white; line-height: 12.5707216262817px; text-align: left;">)</span></span><br />
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<br />Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/04796162963517707328noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5399728436435065792.post-57350688157867678992014-10-05T10:23:00.003-07:002014-10-05T10:23:27.338-07:00Corpus callosum<div style="background-color: white; color: #404040; font-family: 'Open Sans', sans-serif; font-size: 13px; margin-bottom: 14px; padding: 0px;">
The <strong style="color: #232323; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">corpus callosum</strong> <strong style="color: #232323; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">(CC)</strong> links the cerebral cortex of the left and right cerebral hemispheres and is the largest fibre pathway in the <a class="new-internal" href="http://radiopaedia.org/articles/missing?article%5Btitle%5D=brain" style="color: #7f7f7f; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration: none;">brain</a>.</div>
<h4 style="background-color: white; color: #80419a; font-family: 'Open Sans', sans-serif; font-size: 18px; margin: 5px 0px; padding: 0px;">
Gross anatomy</h4>
<div style="background-color: white; color: #404040; font-family: 'Open Sans', sans-serif; font-size: 13px; margin-bottom: 14px; padding: 0px;">
The corpus callosum is ~10cm in length and is C-shaped, like most of the supratentorial structures, in a gentle upwardly convex arch.</div>
<div style="background-color: white; color: #404040; font-family: 'Open Sans', sans-serif; font-size: 13px; margin-bottom: 14px; padding: 0px;">
It is divided into four parts (anterior to posterior):</div>
<ul style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Open Sans', sans-serif; font-size: 13px; list-style-position: inside; margin: 0px 14px 18px; padding: 0px;">
<li style="color: #404040; margin: 4px 0px 6px; padding: 0px;">rostrum (continuous with the <a class="new-internal" href="http://radiopaedia.org/articles/missing?article%5Btitle%5D=lamina-terminalis" style="color: #7f7f7f; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration: none;">lamina terminalis</a>)</li>
<li style="color: #404040; margin: 4px 0px 6px; padding: 0px;">genu</li>
<li style="color: #404040; margin: 4px 0px 6px; padding: 0px;">trunk/body</li>
<li style="color: #404040; margin: 4px 0px 6px; padding: 0px;">splenium</li>
</ul>
<h5 style="background-color: white; color: #80419a; font-family: 'Open Sans', sans-serif; font-size: 14px; margin: 4px 0px; padding: 0px;">
Relations</h5>
<div style="background-color: white; color: #404040; font-family: 'Open Sans', sans-serif; font-size: 13px; margin-bottom: 14px; padding: 0px;">
Immediately above the body of the CC, lies the interhemispheric fissure in which runs the falx cerebri, the anterior cerebral vessels. The superior surface of the CC is covered by a thick layer of grey matter known as the indusium griseum.</div>
<div style="background-color: white; color: #404040; font-family: 'Open Sans', sans-serif; font-size: 13px; margin-bottom: 14px; padding: 0px;">
On either side, the body is seperated from cingulate gyrus by the callosal sulcus.</div>
<div style="background-color: white; color: #404040; font-family: 'Open Sans', sans-serif; font-size: 13px; margin-bottom: 14px; padding: 0px;">
Attached to the concave undersurface of the CC is the septum pellucidum anteriorly, and the fornix and its commissure posteriorly.</div>
<h5 style="background-color: white; color: #80419a; font-family: 'Open Sans', sans-serif; font-size: 14px; margin: 4px 0px; padding: 0px;">
Fibre tracts</h5>
<div style="background-color: white; color: #404040; font-family: 'Open Sans', sans-serif; font-size: 13px; margin-bottom: 14px; padding: 0px;">
Although the CC can be seen as a single large fibre bundle connecting the two hemispheres, an number of individual fibre tracts can be identified. These include:</div>
<ul style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Open Sans', sans-serif; font-size: 13px; list-style-position: inside; margin: 0px 14px 18px; padding: 0px;">
<li style="color: #404040; margin: 4px 0px 6px; padding: 0px;"><strong style="color: #232323; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">genu</strong>: forceps minor : connect medial and lateral surfaces of the frontal lobes</li>
<li style="color: #404040; margin: 4px 0px 6px; padding: 0px;"><strong style="color: #232323; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">rostrum</strong>: connecting the orbital surfaces of the frontal lobes</li>
<li style="color: #404040; margin: 4px 0px 6px; padding: 0px;"><strong style="color: #232323; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">trunk</strong> (body): pass through the corona radiata to the surfaces of the hemispheres</li>
<li style="color: #404040; margin: 4px 0px 6px; padding: 0px;">trunk and splenium: <strong style="color: #232323; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">tapetum; </strong>extends along the lateral surface of the occipital and temporal horns of the lateral ventricle</li>
<li style="color: #404040; margin: 4px 0px 6px; padding: 0px;"><strong style="color: #232323; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">splenium</strong>: forceps major; connect the occipital lobes</li>
</ul>
<div style="background-color: white; color: #404040; font-family: 'Open Sans', sans-serif; font-size: 13px; margin-bottom: 14px; padding: 0px;">
These connections can also be divided into :</div>
<ul style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Open Sans', sans-serif; font-size: 13px; list-style-position: inside; margin: 0px 14px 18px; padding: 0px;">
<li style="color: #404040; margin: 4px 0px 6px; padding: 0px;">homotopic connections those that link similar regions on each side e.g. visual fields of motor/sensory areas of the trunk</li>
<li style="color: #404040; margin: 4px 0px 6px; padding: 0px;">heterotopic connections: those that link dysimilar areas</li>
</ul>
<h4 style="background-color: white; color: #80419a; font-family: 'Open Sans', sans-serif; font-size: 18px; margin: 5px 0px; padding: 0px;">
Blood supply</h4>
<div style="background-color: white; color: #404040; font-family: 'Open Sans', sans-serif; font-size: 13px; margin-bottom: 14px; padding: 0px;">
The corpus callosum (CC) has a rich blood supply, relatively constant and is uncommonly involved by infarcts. The majority of the CC is supplied by the pericallosal arteries (the small branches and accompanying veins forming the pericallosal moustache) and the posterior pericallosal arteries, branches from the anterior and posterior cerebral respectively. In 80% of patients additional supply comes from the anterior communicating artery, via either subcallosal artery or median callosal artery.</div>
<ul style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Open Sans', sans-serif; font-size: 13px; list-style-position: inside; margin: 0px 14px 18px; padding: 0px;">
<li style="color: #404040; margin: 4px 0px 6px; padding: 0px;"><a class="new-internal" href="http://radiopaedia.org/articles/missing?article%5Btitle%5D=subcallosal-artery" style="color: #7f7f7f; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration: none;">subcallosal artery</a> (50% of patients) is essentially a large version of a hypothalmic branch, which in addition to supplying part of the hypothalamus also supplies the medial portions of the rostrum and genu</li>
</ul>
<ul style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Open Sans', sans-serif; font-size: 13px; list-style-position: inside; margin: 0px 14px 18px; padding: 0px;">
<li style="color: #404040; margin: 4px 0px 6px; padding: 0px;"><a class="new-internal" href="http://radiopaedia.org/articles/missing?article%5Btitle%5D=median-callosal-artery" style="color: #7f7f7f; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration: none;">median callosal artery</a> (30% of patients) can be thought of as a more extended version of the subcallosal artery, in that it travels along the same course, supplies the same structures but additionally reaches the body of the corpus callosum</li>
</ul>
<ul style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Open Sans', sans-serif; font-size: 13px; list-style-position: inside; margin: 0px 14px 18px; padding: 0px;">
<li style="color: #404040; margin: 4px 0px 6px; padding: 0px;">posterior pericallosal artery (also known as splenial artery) supplies a variable portion of the splenieum. Its origin is inconstant, arising from P3 or branches there of</li>
</ul>
Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5399728436435065792.post-24812689096920223792014-09-25T07:23:00.002-07:002014-09-25T07:24:18.279-07:00The hippocampus on MRI<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://www.frontiersin.org/files/Articles/111838/fnagi-06-00261-HTML-r1/image_m/fnagi-06-00261-g001.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://www.frontiersin.org/files/Articles/111838/fnagi-06-00261-HTML-r1/image_m/fnagi-06-00261-g001.jpg" height="201" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><strong style="background-color: white; color: #3e3d40; font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', Times, serif; font-size: 13.1428575515747px; line-height: 18px; outline: 0px !important; text-align: start;">Coronal images of the head (A), body (B) and tail (C) and a sagittal cross-section of the hippocampus (D) on low resolution 1mm<span style="font-size: 12px; line-height: 0; outline: 0px !important; position: relative; top: -0.5em; vertical-align: baseline;">3</span> T1 1.5 T images (A–D) and on high resolution 0.7 mm<span style="font-size: 12px; line-height: 0; outline: 0px !important; position: relative; top: -0.5em; vertical-align: baseline;">3</span> T2 7 T images (E–H)</strong><span style="background-color: white; color: #3e3d40; font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', Times, serif; font-size: 13.1428575515747px; line-height: 18px; text-align: start;">. Note the white matter bands between the dentate gyrus and cornu ammonis on the high resolution T2 images (indicated by arrows). Although we show high resolution 7 T T2 images here, the white matter bands between the dentate gyrus and the cornu ammonis can also be visualized on high resolution T2 3–4 T images</span></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<br />Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/04796162963517707328noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5399728436435065792.post-88840421660011387132014-04-18T10:06:00.001-07:002014-04-18T10:06:51.198-07:00University of Winsconsi's Neuroanatomy Resources<blockquote>
<table border="0" cellpadding="1" style="width: 80%px;"><tbody>
<tr><td align="LEFT"><img alt="*" src="http://www.neuroanatomy.wisc.edu/Ball.gif" height="13" width="12" x-sas-useimageheight="" x-sas-useimagewidth="" /><b> Spinal cord: <i><a href="http://www.neuroanatomy.wisc.edu/sc97/text/SC/contents.htm">Global Spinal cord</a></i></b></td></tr>
<tr><td align="LEFT" width="50%"><img alt="*" src="http://www.neuroanatomy.wisc.edu/Ball.gif" height="13" width="12" x-sas-useimageheight="" x-sas-useimagewidth="" /><b> Spinal cord: <i><a href="http://www.neuroanatomy.wisc.edu/SClinic/Weakness/Weakness.htm">Clinical Spinal cord</a></i></b><i></i></td><td width="30%"><b><a href="http://www.neuroanatomy.wisc.edu/levels/spinalvls.html">Spinal cord levels</a></b></td><td></td></tr>
<tr><td align="LEFT" width="50%"><img alt="*" src="http://www.neuroanatomy.wisc.edu/Ball.gif" height="13" width="12" x-sas-useimageheight="" x-sas-useimagewidth="" /><b> Brain stem: <i><a href="http://www.neuroanatomy.wisc.edu/Bs97/TEXT/BS/contents.htm">Global Brain stem</a></i></b><i></i></td><td width="30%"><b><a href="http://www.neuroanatomy.wisc.edu/virtualbrain/Index.html">Virtual Brain stem</a></b></td></tr>
<tr><td align="LEFT"><img alt="*" src="http://www.neuroanatomy.wisc.edu/Ball.gif" height="13" width="12" x-sas-useimageheight="" x-sas-useimagewidth="" /><b> Cerebellum: <i><a href="http://www.neuroanatomy.wisc.edu/cere/text/cere/contents.htm">Global Cerebellum</a></i></b></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
</blockquote>
<br />
<blockquote>
<table border="0" cellpadding="1" style="width: 80%px;"><tbody>
<tr><td align="LEFT"><img alt="*" src="http://www.neuroanatomy.wisc.edu/Ball.gif" height="13" width="12" x-sas-useimageheight="" x-sas-useimagewidth="" /><b> Thalamus: </b><a href="http://www.neuroanatomy.wisc.edu/coro97/contents.htm"><b><i>Global Thalamus</i></b></a></td><td><b><a href="http://www.neuroanatomy.wisc.edu/levels/thalamus/Level11.html">Thalamus/Hypothalamus/Basal ganglia identifications</a></b></td></tr>
<tr><td align="LEFT" colspan="3"><img alt="*" src="http://www.neuroanatomy.wisc.edu/Ball.gif" height="13" width="12" x-sas-useimageheight="" x-sas-useimagewidth="" /><b> Cranial Nerves: <i><a href="http://www.neuroanatomy.wisc.edu/cn/cn.htm">Cranial Nerve Review</a></i></b></td></tr>
<tr><td align="LEFT" colspan="3"><img alt="*" src="http://www.neuroanatomy.wisc.edu/Ball.gif" height="13" width="12" x-sas-useimageheight="" x-sas-useimagewidth="" /><b> National Boards: <i><u><a href="http://www.neuroanatomy.wisc.edu/natbrdrev/nbrbase1.htm">National Board Review; Practice questions</a></u></i></b></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
</blockquote>
<br />
<blockquote>
<table border="0" cellpadding="5" style="width: 85%px;"><tbody>
<tr valign="TOP"><td><b><a href="http://www.neuroanatomy.wisc.edu/grossvideo/neuroclips.html">Neurosciences video demonstrations</a></b></td><td><b><a href="http://www.radiology.wisc.edu/Med_Students/neuroradiology/NeuroRad/NeuroRad.htm">Radiology reference page</a></b></td><td><b><a href="http://www.neuroanatomy.wisc.edu/ventricles/ventricle.html">Ventricles</a></b></td></tr>
<tr><td><b><a href="http://www.neuroanatomy.wisc.edu/neuroimages.html">Neuroanatomy identifications</a></b></td><td><b><a href="http://www.neuroanatomy.wisc.edu/develop/develop.html">CNS Development</a></b></td><td><a href="http://www.neuroanatomy.wisc.edu/powerpnt/sleep03.ppt"><strong>Sleep (ppt)</strong></a></td></tr>
<tr><td><b><a href="https://uwmad.courses.wisconsin.edu/">Learn@UW</a></b></td><td><a href="http://www.neuroanatomy.wisc.edu/video/clinical.html">Clinical gallery</a></td><td><a href="http://www.neuroanatomy.wisc.edu/powerpnt/COMA03.ppt"><strong>Coma (ppt)</strong></a></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
</blockquote>
<br />
<blockquote>
<table border="1" cellpadding="3" style="width: 85%px;"><tbody>
<tr valign="TOP"><td width="25%"><b><span style="font-size: medium;">Week Number</span></b></td><td><b><span style="font-size: medium;">Self Learning</span></b></td></tr>
<tr valign="TOP"><td width="40%"><b>2 : Jan 23 - 27</b></td><td align="LEFT"><span style="color: #003366;"><b><a href="http://www.neuroanatomy.wisc.edu/angiograms/bldsup.html">Blood supply</a></b><br /><b><a href="http://www.neuroanatomy.wisc.edu/levels/spinalvls.html">Spinal cord levels</a></b></span></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
</blockquote>
Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/04796162963517707328noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5399728436435065792.post-68769040850460427682014-03-31T12:04:00.003-07:002014-03-31T12:12:08.329-07:00Territories of Brain Arteries<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhF56P0hZxj1pWckVCP5WjaaHBet7rEpHH-RQHVD2ORO238fjs6QdyAZ47wCZsAXi7MsaHqcq1891FB83KAmGkLI23ss8UPcHQHGINjvhg0lX-BuSL6XnFlSTeNeR-oB0g3ZK60KdxZHvY/s1600/territorios+vasculares.jpg" imageanchor="1"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhF56P0hZxj1pWckVCP5WjaaHBet7rEpHH-RQHVD2ORO238fjs6QdyAZ47wCZsAXi7MsaHqcq1891FB83KAmGkLI23ss8UPcHQHGINjvhg0lX-BuSL6XnFlSTeNeR-oB0g3ZK60KdxZHvY/s320/territorios+vasculares.jpg" height="640" width="326" /></a><br />
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<br />Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5399728436435065792.post-14031752236262200812013-09-29T09:24:00.003-07:002013-09-29T09:24:22.444-07:00Dissecting the BioDigital Human: A 3D Anatomy Lesson<object id="flashObj" width="480" height="270" classid="clsid:D27CDB6E-AE6D-11cf-96B8-444553540000" codebase="http://download.macromedia.com/pub/shockwave/cabs/flash/swflash.cab#version=9,0,47,0"><param name="movie" value="http://c.brightcove.com/services/viewer/federated_f9?isVid=1&isUI=1" /><param name="bgcolor" value="#FFFFFF" /><param name="flashVars" value="videoId=1549277759001&linkBaseURL=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.theatlantic.com%2Fvideo%2Findex%2F254306%2Fanatomy-lab-20%2F&playerID=1054655355001&playerKey=AQ~~,AAAABvb_NGE~,DMkZt2E6wO3_sfth6vHgTpNZZSEwcydt&domain=embed&dynamicStreaming=true" /><param name="base" value="http://admin.brightcove.com" /><param name="seamlesstabbing" value="false" /><param name="allowFullScreen" value="true" /><param name="swLiveConnect" value="true" /><param name="allowScriptAccess" value="always" /><embed src="http://c.brightcove.com/services/viewer/federated_f9?isVid=1&isUI=1" bgcolor="#FFFFFF" flashVars="videoId=1549277759001&linkBaseURL=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.theatlantic.com%2Fvideo%2Findex%2F254306%2Fanatomy-lab-20%2F&playerID=1054655355001&playerKey=AQ~~,AAAABvb_NGE~,DMkZt2E6wO3_sfth6vHgTpNZZSEwcydt&domain=embed&dynamicStreaming=true" base="http://admin.brightcove.com" name="flashObj" width="480" height="270" seamlesstabbing="false" type="application/x-shockwave-flash" allowFullScreen="true" allowScriptAccess="always" swLiveConnect="true" pluginspage="http://www.macromedia.com/shockwave/download/index.cgi?P1_Prod_Version=ShockwaveFlash"></embed></object>Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5399728436435065792.post-22237456835048206012013-09-20T07:04:00.000-07:002013-09-20T07:04:41.766-07:00The Sensory Neurons of Touch<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
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<br />Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5399728436435065792.post-44636330346059694402011-12-26T05:23:00.001-08:002015-11-14T02:09:58.837-08:00Lymphatic drainage of the head and neck<br />
<div dir="ltr" style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; color: #444444; direction: ltr; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 20px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: left; vertical-align: baseline;">
<b style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><u><span style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; color: #993300; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';">INTRODUCTION</span></span></u></b></div>
<div dir="ltr" style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; color: #444444; direction: ltr; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 20px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: left; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';">THE lymphatic tissue of the head and neck forms one third of the lymphatic tissue of the body</span></span></div>
<div dir="ltr" style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; color: #444444; direction: ltr; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 20px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: left; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';">The lymphatic tissue of the head and neck is divided into the adenoid tissue and lymph nodes</span></span></div>
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<b style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><u><span style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; color: #993300; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';">1-the adenoid tissue</span></span></u></b></div>
<div dir="ltr" style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; color: #444444; direction: ltr; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 20px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: left; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';">it is aggregation of lymphoid tissue which guards the entrance of the alimentary and respiratory system tracts</span></span></div>
<div dir="ltr" style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; color: #444444; direction: ltr; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 20px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: left; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';">so it forms a ring called the lymphatic ring or circle called <span style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; color: #993300; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">WALDEYER</span> which includes:</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><span style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; color: #993300; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">1-superiorly</span><span style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">:the nasopharyngeal tonsil at the roof and the posterior wall of the nasopharynx.</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><span style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; color: #993300; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">2-inferiorly</span><span style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">: the lingual tonsil on the dorsum of the posterior third of the tongue</span></span></div>
<div dir="ltr" style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; color: #444444; direction: ltr; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 20px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: left; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><span style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; color: #993300; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">3-laterally</span><span style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">: the palatine tonsils</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><span style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; color: #993300; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">drainage </span><span style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">: efferent lymphatics from the Waldeyer ring drain into the upper deep cervical lymph nodes.</span></span></div>
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<b style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><u><span style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; color: #993300; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';">2-lymph nodes of the head and neck</span></span></u></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><span style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">(a)<span style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"> </span></span></span><span dir="ltr" style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><u><span style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">superficial circular group</span></u></span></span></div>
<div dir="ltr" style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; color: #444444; direction: ltr; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 20px; margin-left: 54pt; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: left; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><span style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">(b)<span style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"> </span></span></span><span dir="ltr" style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><u><span style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">deep circular group</span></u></span></span></div>
<div dir="ltr" style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; color: #444444; direction: ltr; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 20px; margin-left: 54pt; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: left; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><span style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">(c)<span style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"> </span></span></span><span dir="ltr" style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><u><span style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">vertical chain inbetween the 2 circular group</span></u></span></span></div>
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<div dir="ltr" style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; color: #444444; direction: ltr; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 20px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: left; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';">these groups drain the superficial and the deep structures of the head and neck</span></span></div>
<div dir="ltr" style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; color: #444444; direction: ltr; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 20px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: left; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';">the superficial and the deep circular groups drain into the vertical group which is called the deep cervical lymph nodes lying alongside the inf. Vena cava deep to the sternomastoid muscle.</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><b style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; color: #993300; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">(a)<span style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"> </span></span></span></b><span dir="ltr" style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><b style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><u><span style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; color: #993300; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">the superficial circular lymph nodes of the head</span></u></b></span></span></div>
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<table border="1" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="-webkit-border-horizontal-spacing: 0px; -webkit-border-vertical-spacing: 0px; background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: medium; border-collapse: collapse; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: medium; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: medium; border-style: initial; border-top-color: initial; border-top-style: none; border-top-width: medium; font-size: 14px; margin-bottom: 10px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; min-width: 200px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><tbody style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">
<tr style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><td style="background-color: transparent; border-bottom-color: windowtext; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-color: windowtext; border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1pt; border-right-color: windowtext; border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1pt; border-style: initial; border-top-color: windowtext; border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1pt; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 5.4pt; padding-right: 5.4pt; padding-top: 0px; text-align: left; vertical-align: top; width: 106.5pt;" valign="top" width="142"><div dir="ltr" style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; direction: ltr; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">
<b style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><u><span style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; color: #993300; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';">Lymph nodes</span></span></u></b></div>
</td><td style="background-color: transparent; border-bottom-color: windowtext; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(236, 233, 216); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: windowtext; border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1pt; border-style: initial; border-top-color: windowtext; border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1pt; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 5.4pt; padding-right: 5.4pt; padding-top: 0px; text-align: left; vertical-align: top; width: 106.5pt;" valign="top" width="142"><div dir="ltr" style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; direction: ltr; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">
<b style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><u><span style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; color: #993300; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';">Site</span></span></u></b></div>
</td><td style="background-color: transparent; border-bottom-color: windowtext; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(236, 233, 216); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: windowtext; border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1pt; border-style: initial; border-top-color: windowtext; border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1pt; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 5.4pt; padding-right: 5.4pt; padding-top: 0px; text-align: left; vertical-align: top; width: 106.55pt;" valign="top" width="142"><div dir="ltr" style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; direction: ltr; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">
<b style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><u><span style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; color: #993300; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';">Area drained</span></span></u></b></div>
</td><td style="background-color: transparent; border-bottom-color: windowtext; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(236, 233, 216); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: windowtext; border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1pt; border-style: initial; border-top-color: windowtext; border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1pt; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 5.4pt; padding-right: 5.4pt; padding-top: 0px; text-align: left; vertical-align: top; width: 106.55pt;" valign="top" width="142"><div dir="ltr" style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; direction: ltr; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">
<b style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><u><span style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; color: #993300; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';">Efferent lymphatics pass to</span></span></u></b></div>
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<tr style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><td style="background-color: transparent; border-bottom-color: windowtext; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-color: windowtext; border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1pt; border-right-color: windowtext; border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1pt; border-style: initial; border-top-color: rgb(236, 233, 216); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 5.4pt; padding-right: 5.4pt; padding-top: 0px; text-align: left; vertical-align: top; width: 106.5pt;" valign="top" width="142"><div dir="ltr" style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; direction: ltr; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">
<b style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><u><span style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; color: #993300; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';">Occipital L.N</span></span></u></b></div>
</td><td style="background-color: transparent; border-bottom-color: windowtext; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(236, 233, 216); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: windowtext; border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1pt; border-style: initial; border-top-color: rgb(236, 233, 216); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 5.4pt; padding-right: 5.4pt; padding-top: 0px; text-align: left; vertical-align: top; width: 106.5pt;" valign="top" width="142"><div dir="ltr" style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; direction: ltr; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';">Occipital artery</span></span></div>
</td><td style="background-color: transparent; border-bottom-color: windowtext; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(236, 233, 216); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: windowtext; border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1pt; border-style: initial; border-top-color: rgb(236, 233, 216); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 5.4pt; padding-right: 5.4pt; padding-top: 0px; text-align: left; vertical-align: top; width: 106.55pt;" valign="top" width="142"><div dir="ltr" style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; direction: ltr; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';">1-post. Part of the scalp</span></span></div>
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<span style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';">2-the back of the neck</span></span></div>
</td><td style="background-color: transparent; border-bottom-color: windowtext; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(236, 233, 216); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: windowtext; border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1pt; border-style: initial; border-top-color: rgb(236, 233, 216); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 5.4pt; padding-right: 5.4pt; padding-top: 0px; text-align: left; vertical-align: top; width: 106.55pt;" valign="top" width="142"><div dir="ltr" style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; direction: ltr; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';">Upper deep cervical L.N</span></span></div>
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<tr style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><td style="background-color: transparent; border-bottom-color: windowtext; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-color: windowtext; border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1pt; border-right-color: windowtext; border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1pt; border-style: initial; border-top-color: rgb(236, 233, 216); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 5.4pt; padding-right: 5.4pt; padding-top: 0px; text-align: left; vertical-align: top; width: 106.5pt;" valign="top" width="142"><div dir="ltr" style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; direction: ltr; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">
<b style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><u><span style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; color: #993300; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';">Post. Auricular L.N</span></span></u></b></div>
</td><td style="background-color: transparent; border-bottom-color: windowtext; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(236, 233, 216); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: windowtext; border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1pt; border-style: initial; border-top-color: rgb(236, 233, 216); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 5.4pt; padding-right: 5.4pt; padding-top: 0px; text-align: left; vertical-align: top; width: 106.5pt;" valign="top" width="142"><div dir="ltr" style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; direction: ltr; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';">Post.auricular vessels behind the auricle</span></span></div>
</td><td style="background-color: transparent; border-bottom-color: windowtext; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(236, 233, 216); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: windowtext; border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1pt; border-style: initial; border-top-color: rgb(236, 233, 216); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 5.4pt; padding-right: 5.4pt; padding-top: 0px; text-align: left; vertical-align: top; width: 106.55pt;" valign="top" width="142"><div dir="ltr" style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; direction: ltr; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';">1-post. Part of the scalp</span></span></div>
<div dir="ltr" style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; direction: ltr; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';">2-auricle</span></span></div>
<div dir="ltr" style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; direction: ltr; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';">3-external auditory meatus</span></span></div>
</td><td style="background-color: transparent; border-bottom-color: windowtext; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(236, 233, 216); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: windowtext; border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1pt; border-style: initial; border-top-color: rgb(236, 233, 216); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 5.4pt; padding-right: 5.4pt; padding-top: 0px; text-align: left; vertical-align: top; width: 106.55pt;" valign="top" width="142"><div dir="ltr" style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; direction: ltr; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';">Upper deep cervical L.N</span></span></div>
</td></tr>
<tr style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><td style="background-color: transparent; border-bottom-color: windowtext; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-color: windowtext; border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1pt; border-right-color: windowtext; border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1pt; border-style: initial; border-top-color: rgb(236, 233, 216); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 5.4pt; padding-right: 5.4pt; padding-top: 0px; text-align: left; vertical-align: top; width: 106.5pt;" valign="top" width="142"><div dir="ltr" style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; direction: ltr; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">
<b style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><u><span style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; color: #993300; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';">Parotid L.N</span></span></u></b></div>
</td><td style="background-color: transparent; border-bottom-color: windowtext; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(236, 233, 216); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: windowtext; border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1pt; border-style: initial; border-top-color: rgb(236, 233, 216); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 5.4pt; padding-right: 5.4pt; padding-top: 0px; text-align: left; vertical-align: top; width: 106.5pt;" valign="top" width="142"><div dir="ltr" style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; direction: ltr; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';">Superficial to the parotid gland</span></span></div>
</td><td style="background-color: transparent; border-bottom-color: windowtext; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(236, 233, 216); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: windowtext; border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1pt; border-style: initial; border-top-color: rgb(236, 233, 216); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 5.4pt; padding-right: 5.4pt; padding-top: 0px; text-align: left; vertical-align: top; width: 106.55pt;" valign="top" width="142"><div dir="ltr" style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; direction: ltr; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';">1-temporal region</span></span></div>
<div dir="ltr" style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; direction: ltr; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';">2-auricle</span></span></div>
<div dir="ltr" style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; direction: ltr; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';">3-upper 1/2 of the face & eye lids</span></span></div>
</td><td style="background-color: transparent; border-bottom-color: windowtext; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(236, 233, 216); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: windowtext; border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1pt; border-style: initial; border-top-color: rgb(236, 233, 216); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 5.4pt; padding-right: 5.4pt; padding-top: 0px; text-align: left; vertical-align: top; width: 106.55pt;" valign="top" width="142"><div dir="ltr" style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; direction: ltr; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';">Upper deep and superficial cervical L.N</span></span></div>
</td></tr>
<tr style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><td style="background-color: transparent; border-bottom-color: windowtext; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-color: windowtext; border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1pt; border-right-color: windowtext; border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1pt; border-style: initial; border-top-color: rgb(236, 233, 216); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 5.4pt; padding-right: 5.4pt; padding-top: 0px; text-align: left; vertical-align: top; width: 106.5pt;" valign="top" width="142"><div dir="ltr" style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; direction: ltr; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">
<b style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><u><span style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; color: #993300; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';">Buccal L.N</span></span></u></b></div>
</td><td style="background-color: transparent; border-bottom-color: windowtext; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(236, 233, 216); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: windowtext; border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1pt; border-style: initial; border-top-color: rgb(236, 233, 216); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 5.4pt; padding-right: 5.4pt; padding-top: 0px; text-align: left; vertical-align: top; width: 106.5pt;" valign="top" width="142"><div dir="ltr" style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; direction: ltr; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';">Facial vessels</span></span></div>
<div dir="ltr" style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; direction: ltr; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';">On the buccinator and the mandible</span></span></div>
</td><td style="background-color: transparent; border-bottom-color: windowtext; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(236, 233, 216); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: windowtext; border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1pt; border-style: initial; border-top-color: rgb(236, 233, 216); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 5.4pt; padding-right: 5.4pt; padding-top: 0px; text-align: left; vertical-align: top; width: 106.55pt;" valign="top" width="142"><div dir="ltr" style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; direction: ltr; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';">1-the cheeks</span></span></div>
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<span style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';">2-the lips</span></span></div>
</td><td style="background-color: transparent; border-bottom-color: windowtext; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(236, 233, 216); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: windowtext; border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1pt; border-style: initial; border-top-color: rgb(236, 233, 216); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 5.4pt; padding-right: 5.4pt; padding-top: 0px; text-align: left; vertical-align: top; width: 106.55pt;" valign="top" width="142"><div dir="ltr" style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; direction: ltr; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';">Submandibular L.N</span></span></div>
</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
</div>
<div dir="ltr" style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; color: #444444; direction: ltr; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 20px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: left; vertical-align: baseline;">
<br /></div>Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5399728436435065792.post-25636396047284892972011-12-26T05:22:00.001-08:002015-11-14T02:09:42.864-08:00The visual cerebral cortex<br />
<div align="center" dir="ltr" style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; color: #444444; direction: ltr; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 20px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: center; vertical-align: baseline;">
<b style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><u><span style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><br class="Apple-interchange-newline" /> </span></span></span></u></b></div>
<div dir="ltr" style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; color: #444444; direction: ltr; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 20px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: left; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';">Visual Pathways</span></span></div>
<div dir="ltr" style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; color: #444444; direction: ltr; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 20px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: left; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';">-The visual pathway begins in the retina to end in the visual<span style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"> </span>cortex.<span style="font-size: small;"></span></span></span></div>
<div dir="ltr" style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; color: #444444; direction: ltr; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 20px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: left; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><span style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">-The visual nerve signals leave the retinas through the optic nerves. At the optic chiasma, the optic nerve fibers from the <b style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><i style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><u>nasal halves</u></i></b> of the retinas cross to the</span></span></div>
<div dir="ltr" style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; color: #444444; direction: ltr; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 20px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: left; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><span style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">opposite sides ,where they join the fibers from the</span></span></div>
<div dir="ltr" style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; color: #444444; direction: ltr; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 20px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: left; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';">opposite <b style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><i style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><u>temporal retinas</u></i></b> to form the optic tracts.</span></span></div>
<div dir="ltr" style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; color: #444444; direction: ltr; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 20px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: left; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><span style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">The fibers of each optic tract then synapse in the <b style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><i style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><u>dorsal lateral geniculate nucleus of the thalamus</u></i></b>, and from there <u>geniculo-calcarine fibers</u> pass by way of the optic radiation (also called the geniculocalcarine tract) to the <u>primary visual cortex</u> in the <u>calcarine fissure</u> area of the <u>medial occipital lobe</u>.</span></span></div>
<div dir="ltr" style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; color: #444444; direction: ltr; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 20px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: left; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';">-Visual fibers also pass to several older areas of the brain:</span></span></div>
<div dir="ltr" style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; color: #444444; direction: ltr; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 20px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: left; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';">(1) from the <u>optic tracts</u> to the<span style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"> </span><u>suprachiasmatic nucleus of the hypothalamus</u>, presumably to control<u>circadian rhythms</u> that synchronize various physiologic changes of the body with night and day</span></span></div>
<div dir="ltr" style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; color: #444444; direction: ltr; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 20px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: left; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';">(2) into the <u>pretectal nuclei</u> in the midbrain, to elicit reflex movements of the eyes to focus on objects of importance and to activate the pupillary light reflex</span></span></div>
<div dir="ltr" style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; color: #444444; direction: ltr; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 20px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: left; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';">(3) into the <u>superior colliculus</u>, to control rapid directional movements of the two eyes (4) into <u>the ventral lateral geniculate nucleus of the thalamus</u> and surrounding basal regions of the brain,presumably to help control some of the body’s behavioral functions.</span></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div dir="ltr" style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; color: #444444; direction: ltr; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 20px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: left; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';">Thus, the visual pathways can be divided roughly into</span></span></div>
<div dir="ltr" style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; color: #444444; direction: ltr; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 20px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: left; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';">1-an<span style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"> </span><b style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><i style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><u>old system</u></i></b> to the <u>midbrain and base of the forebrain</u></span></span></div>
<div dir="ltr" style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; color: #444444; direction: ltr; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 20px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: left; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';">2- a <b style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><i style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><u>new system</u></i></b> for direct transmission of visual signals into the visual cortex located in the occipital lobes.</span></span></div>
<div dir="ltr" style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; color: #444444; direction: ltr; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 20px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: left; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><span style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">In human beings, the new system is responsible for perception of virtually all</span></span></div>
<div dir="ltr" style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; color: #444444; direction: ltr; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 20px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: left; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><span style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">aspects of visual form(colors,and other conscious vision).Conversely,in many</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><span style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">primitive animals,even visual form is detected by the older system,using the</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><span style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">superior colliculus in the same manner that the visual cortex is used in</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><span style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">mammals.</span></span></div>
<div dir="ltr" style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; color: #444444; direction: ltr; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 20px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: left; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><span style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Function of the Dorsal Lateral Geniculate Nucleus</span></span></div>
<div dir="ltr" style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; color: #444444; direction: ltr; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 20px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: left; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><span style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">of the Thalamus</span></span></div>
<div dir="ltr" style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; color: #444444; direction: ltr; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 20px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: left; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><span style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">The optic nerve fibers of the new visual system terminate in the <u>dorsal lateral</u></span></span></div>
<div dir="ltr" style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; color: #444444; direction: ltr; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 20px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: left; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><u><span style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">geniculate nucleus</span></u><span style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">, located at the dorsal end of the thalamus and also called</span></span></div>
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<span style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';">simply <u>the lateral geniculate body</u>, .The dorsal lateral geniculate nucleus serves two principal functions:</span></span></div>
<div dir="ltr" style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; color: #444444; direction: ltr; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 20px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: left; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';">First,it relays visual information from the optic tract to the visual cortex by way of the optic radiation(also called the geniculocalcarine tract).This relay function is so accurate that there is exact point-to-point transmission with a high degree of spatial fidelity all the way from the retina to the visual cortex.</span></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div dir="ltr" style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; color: #444444; direction: ltr; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 20px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: left; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';">The second major function of the dorsal lateral geniculate nucleus is to “gate”the transmission of signals to the visual cortex that is to control how much of the signal is allowed to pass to the cortex.</span></span></div>
<div dir="ltr" style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; color: #444444; direction: ltr; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 20px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: left; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';">The nucleus receives gating control signals from two major sources:</span></span></div>
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<span style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';">(1) <u>corticofugal fibersreturning</u> in a backward direction from the primary visual cortex to the lateral geniculate nucleus</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><span style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"> </span>(2) <u>reticular areas of the mesencephalon</u>. Both of these are inhibitory and,when</span></span></div>
<div dir="ltr" style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; color: #444444; direction: ltr; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 20px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: left; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><span style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">stimulated,can turn off transmission through selected portions of the dorsal lateral geniculate nucleus.It is assumed that both of these gating circuits help high-</span></span></div>
<div dir="ltr" style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; color: #444444; direction: ltr; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 20px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: left; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><span style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">light the visual information that is allowed to pass.</span></span></div>
<div dir="ltr" style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; color: #444444; direction: ltr; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 20px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: left; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';">Finally,the dorsal lateral geniculate nucleus is divided in another way:</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><span style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">(1) <u>Layers I and II</u> are called <u>magnocellular layers</u> because they contain large</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><span style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">neurons.These receive their input almost entirely from the large type Y retinal ganglion cells.This magnocellular system provides <u>a rapidly conducting pathway to</u></span></span></div>
<div dir="ltr" style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; color: #444444; direction: ltr; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 20px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: left; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><u><span style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">the visual cortex</span></u><span style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">.However,this system is color blind, transmitting only black-and-white information.</span></span></div>
<div dir="ltr" style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; color: #444444; direction: ltr; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 20px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: left; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><span style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Also,its point-to-point transmission is poor because there</span></span></div>
<div dir="ltr" style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; color: #444444; direction: ltr; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 20px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: left; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';">are not many Y ganglion cells,and their dendrites spread widely in the retina.</span></span></div>
<div dir="ltr" style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; color: #444444; direction: ltr; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 20px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: left; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><span style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">(2<u>) Layers III through VI</u> are called <u>parvocellular layers</u> because they contain</span></span></div>
<div dir="ltr" style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; color: #444444; direction: ltr; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 20px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: left; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><span style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">large numbers of small to medium-sized neurons.</span></span></div>
<div dir="ltr" style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; color: #444444; direction: ltr; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 20px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: left; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';">These neurons receive their input almost entirely from the type X retinal ganglion cells that transmit color and convey accurate point-to-point spatial information,but at only a moderate velocity of conduction rather than at high velocity.</span></span></div>
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<b style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><u><span style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';">Organization and Function<span style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"> </span>of the Visual Cortex</span></span></u></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><span style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"> </span>the visual cortex located primarily on the medial aspect of the occipital lobes</span></span></div>
<div dir="ltr" style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; color: #444444; direction: ltr; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 20px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: left; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><span style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Like the cortical representations of the other sensory systems,the visual cortex is divided into a primary visual cortex and secondary visual areas.</span></span></div>
<div dir="ltr" style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; color: #444444; direction: ltr; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 20px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: left; vertical-align: baseline;">
<b style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><u><span style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';">Primary Visual Cortex.</span></span></u></b></div>
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<span style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><span style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"> </span>The primary visual cortex<span style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"> </span>lies in the <u>calcarine fissure area</u>, extending forward from the<span style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"> </span>occipital pole on the<span style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"> </span>medial aspect of each occipital cortex.This area is the terminus of direct visual signals from the eyes.</span></span></div>
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<span style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';">Signals from the macular area of the retina terminate near the occipital pole</span></span></div>
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<span style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';">while signals from the more peripheral retina terminate at or in concentric half circles anterior to the pole but still along the calcarine fissure on the medial occipital lobe.</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><span style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">The upper portion of the retina is represented superiorly and the lower portion inferiorly.</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><span style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Note in the figure the especially large area that represents the macula.It is to this region that the retinal fovea transmits its signals.The fovea is responsible for</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><span style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">the highest degree of visual acuity.Based on retinal area,the fovea has several hundred times as much representation in the primary visual cortex as do the most peripheral portions of the retina.</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><span style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">The primary visual cortex is also called visual area I. Still another name is the striate cortex because this area has a grossly striated appearance.</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><b style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><u><span style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Secondary Visual Areas of the Cortex</span></u></b><span style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">.</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><span style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"> </span>The secondary visual areas,also called visual association areas, lie lateral anterior,superior,and inferior to the primary visual cortex.Most of these areas also fold</span></span></div>
<div dir="ltr" style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; color: #444444; direction: ltr; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 20px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: left; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><span style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">outward over the lateral surfaces of the occipital and parietal cortex,.Secondary signals are transmitted to these areas for analysis of visual meanings.For</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><span style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">instance,on all sides of the primary visual cortex is</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><span style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Brodmann’s area 18 ,which is where virtually all signals from the primary visual cortex pass next.Therefore,Brodmann’s area 18 is called visual</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><span style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">area II, or simply V-2.The other,more distant secondary visual areas have specific designations—V-3,V-4</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><span style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">and so forth up to more than a dozen areas.The</span></span></div>
<div dir="ltr" style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; color: #444444; direction: ltr; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 20px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: left; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><span style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">importance of all these areas is that various aspects</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><span style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">of the visual image are progressively dissected and</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><span style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">analyzed.</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><b style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><u><span style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Layered Structure of the Primary</span></u></b></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><b style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><u><span style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Visual Cortex</span></u></b></span></div>
<div dir="ltr" style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; color: #444444; direction: ltr; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 20px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: left; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><span style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Like almost all other portions of the cerebral cortex</span></span></div>
<div dir="ltr" style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; color: #444444; direction: ltr; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 20px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: left; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';">the primary visual cortex has six distinct layers</span></span></div>
<div dir="ltr" style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; color: #444444; direction: ltr; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 20px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: left; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><span style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Also,as is true for the other sensory systems,the geniculocalcarine fibers terminate</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><span style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">mainly in layer IV.But this layer,too,is organized into</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><span style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">subdivisions.The rapidly conducted signals from the Y</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><span style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">retinal ganglion cells terminate in layer IVca, and</span></span></div>
<div dir="ltr" style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; color: #444444; direction: ltr; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 20px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: left; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><span style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">from there they are relayed vertically both outward</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><span style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">toward the cortical surface and inward toward deeper</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><span style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">levels.</span></span></div>
<div dir="ltr" style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; color: #444444; direction: ltr; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 20px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: left; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><span style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">The visual signals from the medium-sized optic</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><span style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">nerve fibers,derived from the X ganglion cells in the</span></span></div>
<div dir="ltr" style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; color: #444444; direction: ltr; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 20px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: left; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><span style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">retina,also terminate in layer IV,but at points differ-</span></span></div>
<div dir="ltr" style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; color: #444444; direction: ltr; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 20px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: left; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><span style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">ent from the Y signals.They terminate in layers IVa</span></span></div>
<div dir="ltr" style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; color: #444444; direction: ltr; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 20px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: left; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><span style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">and IVcb,the shallowest and deepest portions of layer IV,From there,these signals are transmitted vertically both toward the</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><span style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">surface of the cortex and to deeper layers.It is these</span></span></div>
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<span style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';">X ganglion pathways that transmit the accurate point-to-point type of vision as well as color vision.</span></span></div>
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<b style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><u><span style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';">Vertical Neuronal Columns in the Visual Cortex.</span></span></u></b></div>
<div dir="ltr" style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; color: #444444; direction: ltr; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 20px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: left; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><span style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">The visualcortex is organized structurally into several million vertical columns of neuronal cells,each column having a diameter of 30 to 50 micrometers.The same vertical columnar organization is found throughout the cerebral cortex for the other senses as well (and also in the motor and analytical cortical regions).Each column</span></span></div>
<div dir="ltr" style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; color: #444444; direction: ltr; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 20px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: left; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><span style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">represents a functional unit.One can roughly calculate that each of the visual vertical columns has perhaps1000 or more neurons.</span></span></div>
<div dir="ltr" style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; color: #444444; direction: ltr; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 20px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: left; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><span style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">After the optic signals terminate in layer IV,they are further processed as they spread both outward and inward along each vertical column unit.This processing is believed to decipher separate bits of visual information at successive stations along the pathway.The signals that pass outward to layers I,II,and III eventually transmit signals for short distances laterally in the cortex.Conversely,the signals that pass inward to</span></span></div>
<div dir="ltr" style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; color: #444444; direction: ltr; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 20px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: left; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';">layers V and VI excite neurons that transmit signals much greater distances.</span></span></div>
<div dir="ltr" style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; color: #444444; direction: ltr; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 20px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: left; vertical-align: baseline;">
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<div dir="ltr" style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; color: #444444; direction: ltr; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 20px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: left; vertical-align: baseline;">
<b style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><u><span style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';">“Color Blobs” in the Visual Cortex</span></span></u></b><span style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';">.</span></span></div>
<div dir="ltr" style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; color: #444444; direction: ltr; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 20px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: left; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><span style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"> </span>Interspersed among the primary visual columns as well as among the columns of some of the secondary visual areas are special column-like areas called<span style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"> </span>color blobs. They receive lateral signals from adjacent visual columns and are activated specifically by color signals.Therefore,it is presumed that these blobs are the primary areas for deciphering color.</span></span></div>
<div dir="ltr" style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; color: #444444; direction: ltr; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 20px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: left; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';">Interaction of Visual Signals from the Two Separate Eyes.</span></span></div>
<div dir="ltr" style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; color: #444444; direction: ltr; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 20px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: left; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><span style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Recall that the visual signals from the two separate eyes are relayed through separate neuronal layers in the lateral geniculate nucleus.These signals still remain separated from each other when they arrive in layer IV of the primary visual cortex.In fact,layer IV is interlaced with stripes of neuronal columns,each stripe about 0.5 millimeter wide;the signals from one eye enter the columns of every other stripe,alternating with signals from the second eye.This cortical area deciphers whether the respective areas of the<span style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"> </span>two visual images from the two separate eyes are “in register”with each other—that is,whether corresponding points from the two retinas fit with each other.In</span></span></div>
<div dir="ltr" style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; color: #444444; direction: ltr; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 20px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: left; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><span style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">turn,the deciphered information is used to adjust the directional gaze of the separate eyes so that they will fuse with each other (be brought into “register”).The information observed about degree of register of images from the two eyes also allows a person to distinguish the distance of objects by the mechanism of</span></span></div>
<div dir="ltr" style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; color: #444444; direction: ltr; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 20px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: left; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';">stereopsis.</span></span></div>
<div dir="ltr" style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; color: #444444; direction: ltr; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 20px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: left; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><b style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><u><span style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Two Major Pathways for Analysis of Visual Information</span></u></b><span style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">—</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><span style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">(1) The Fast“Position” and “Motion” Pathway;</span></span></div>
<div dir="ltr" style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; color: #444444; direction: ltr; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 20px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: left; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';">(2) The Accurate Color Pathway that after leaving the primary visual cortex,the visual information is analyzed in two major pathways in the secondary visual areas.</span></span></div>
<div dir="ltr" style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; color: #444444; direction: ltr; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 20px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: left; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';">1. Analysis of Third-Dimensional Position, Gross Form, and</span></span></div>
<div dir="ltr" style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; color: #444444; direction: ltr; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 20px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: left; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><span style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Motion of Objects.</span></span></div>
<div dir="ltr" style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; color: #444444; direction: ltr; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 20px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: left; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><span style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">One of the analytical pathways,</span></span></div>
<div dir="ltr" style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; color: #444444; direction: ltr; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 20px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: left; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><span style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">analyzes the third-dimensional positions of visual objects in the space around the body.This pathway also analyzes the gross physical form of the visual scene as well as motion in the scene.In other words,this pathway tells where every object is during each instant and whether it is moving.After leaving the primary visual cortex,the signals flow generally into the posterior midtemporal area and upward into the broad occipitoparietal cortex.At the anterior border of the parietal cortex,the signals overlap with signals from the posterior somatic association areas that analyze three-dimensional aspects of somatosensory signals.The signals transmitted in this<span style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"> </span>position-form-motion pathway are mainly from the large Y optic nerve fibers of the retinal Y ganglion cells,transmitting rapid signals but depicting only black and white with no color.</span></span></div>
<div dir="ltr" style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; color: #444444; direction: ltr; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 20px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: left; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';">2. Analysis of Visual Detail and Color. passing frointo secondary visual areas of the inferior,ventral,and medial regions of the occipital and temporal cortex,show the principal pathway for analysis of visual detail.Separate portions of this pathway specifically dissect out color as well.Therefore,this pathway is concerned with such visual feats as recognizing letters, reading,determining the texture of surfaces,deter-mining detailed colors of objects,and deciphering from all this information what the object is and what it means.m the primary visual cortex</span></span></div>Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0